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FORM ONE CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES 

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY 

TOPIC 2: LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY

 

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Introduction To Chemistry

When you were in primary school, you used to learn science as a single subject. At this level of study, the subject will be broken up into three related subjects, namely Chemistry, Biology and Physics. The three subjects are closely related. You will require the knowledge of one subject to study the other. For example, you will apply the knowledge of chemistry to study different chemical reactions that take place in the body for studying biology of the human body, etc. Likewise as a biologist, you will need the knowledge of physics to study movements of different limbs of the body, etc. Therefore, these few examples show how the three subjects are interdependent. Chemistry is usually studied along with other related subjects such as biology, physics, earth sciences and mathematics. A person studying science is called a scientist. A scientist specialized in the study of chemistry is called a chemist.

The Concept of Chemistry

Explain the concept of Chemistry

Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with the study of nature, properties and composition of matter. Matter can be defined as anything that has weight or mass and can occupy space. Therefore, in chemistry we study materials that make up the earth and universe. These range from living to non-living materials. We apply the knowledge of chemistry to study the composition, behaviour and nature of materials around us. This study enables us to make the best use of these materials to improve our welfare.

Materials Objects Made by Application of Chemistry

Mention materials objects made by application of chemistry

Chemistry is such an important subject that it is applied in other fields such as agriculture, manufacturing, medicine, processing and food industries, education, cosmetics and home care industries, etc. All these industries are responsible for the production of materials that we need to support and hence improve our lives. Materials made by the application of chemistry knowledge include soap, chalk, shoes, clothes, petroleum products, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, cosmetics, drugs, and many others. Can you mention some of the materials made by the application of chemistry knowledge?

This, therefore, means that chemistry is applied in factories, homes, hospitals, pharmacies, research centers, higher learning institutions, etc.

Many products made by the application of chemistry in industry are all around us. Some of these materials are summarized in the table:

Some products made by application of chemistry

Field where applied	Examples of products
Medicine	Drugs, vaccines, nutritional supplements
Agriculture	Agro-chemicals ( fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, acaricides), animal drugs and vaccines, animal feed and supplements
Manufacturing industry	Vehicles, cement, plastics, chemicals, paints, iron sheets, vanishes, glue
Food and beverage industry	Soft and alcoholic drinks, baked food, canned food, spices, cooking oil, salt
Home care and cosmetics industry	Cosmetics, detergents, toothpaste, shoe polish, insecticides, antiseptics, disinfectants
Transport	Fuels, lubricants, oil, grease, tar, coolants, tyres
Textile industry	Clothes, dyes, bleaches, wax, threads
Leather industry	Shoes, handbags, belts, leather articles

The importance of chemistry in life

Areas Where Chemistry is Applied

Mention areas where chemistry is applied

In everyday life, we need different substances to meet our basic human needs like food, shelter, clothing, comfort and health. Application of chemical knowledge enables the production of different materials and products that we need to live better.

Examples of these materials, as mentioned early, are (paraffin), sugar, common salt, soft drinks, medical drugs (medicines), toothpaste and plastics. Others are spirits, wines, shoe polishes, cement, baking soda, petrol, diesel and cosmetics (soaps, body oils and lotions, body and hair creams, etc)

All these materials, among others, are made by applying chemical processes. They are needed for a better living. Can you mention more materials made through chemistry knowledge?

Some materials made by application of chemistry

Nature is made of materials that may be useless, less useful and even harmful. There are also things that are very useful to our lives. Through chemistry, we are able to transform (change) various materials chemically or physically into forms or products that are more useful to man

For example, most laboratory chemicals you use at school are prepared from minerals that are mined from the rocks in the earth.

Laboratory chemicals

Man cannot use most substances unless they are transformed into products that are more useful. Limestone lying idle in earth is useless until it undergoes deliberate physical and compositional transformation into cement. The cement is used for construction of buildings, roads, bridges and many different structures.

We also need to change different mineral ores through a number of processes into useful substances such as steel, aluminium, tin, etc. Man has learned how to change harmful substances into useful products since the long ago.

Common salt may be made from twohazardous substances–hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.

Chemistry is all around us. We often use chemical products and engage ourselves in chemical processes more than we can tell. Look at the picture below.

This is an example of a chemical activity in which we can engage ourselves without knowing.

A woman washing clothes

Many items we use at school, home and industry are made by applying chemical processes. The soap we use to wash our clothes and clean our bodies is made from animal fat and an alkali. Many items are made from plastic. Many kinds of plastics are made from crude oil. What items are made from plastics in your home? Soft drink bottles are made from glass. The major component of glass is sand. Glass is made by mixing sand with metal oxides in a furnace at high temperatures. Some clothing is made from natural fibers such as cotton or silk.

Other fabrics like polyester and nylon are made from chemicals found in coal and crude oil. What are your clothes made of?

Clothes made from cotton fibres

Man has used medicines extracted from plants and animals since the beginning of time. For example, cinchona tree contains quinine, which has a bitter taste. Quinine was and is still used for treatment of malaria. Penicillin is extracted from a fungus called penicillin. Nowadays, it is possible to make chemicals that have the same effects as naturally occurring drugs.

This forms the basis of the pharmaceutical drugs industry. What medicines extracted from plants and animals are used in your school or local dispensary?

Injection drugs and vaccines are made from plant or animal extracts

Apart from clothing, it is a tradition to put on shoes and other attire. Rubber shoes are made from rubber. Rubber is a sticky milky fluid obtained from certain tropical trees. Skin shoes and handbags are made from skins and hides of animals. The process of converting these raw materials into the items mentioned above involves chemistry knowledge.

What other items made by chemical processes do you know?

Skin shoes

Sustainable crop and animal production is also enhanced by application of chemistry knowledge. The use of chemicals in agriculture is inevitable. Fertilizers, insecticides, acaricides, herbicides (weed killers) have and are still playing a good role in agricultural and animal production. In some ecological zones, in order to get good harvest, fertilizer, herbicide and insecticide application is necessary. The same case applies to animal production. As regards to control and prevention of tick-borne diseases, application of different acaricides is often stressed. Also is the use of different drugs to treat internal parasites such as worms, and vaccines to prevent certain diseases.

The Importance of Chemistry in Daily Life

State the importance of Chemistry in daily life

There are a number of reasons for studying chemistry. If you ask someone to tell you the reason for studying chemistry, he/she will give reasons based on how the subject touches him/her. However, there are general and universal reasons as to why we should devote our valuable time and energy to the study of chemistry. In general, we study chemistry because it helps as to understand:

• the composition of materials around us;
• the nature, properties and behaviour of these materials;
• why and how materials behave as they do;
• how a new material, based on the known properties of its allies or counterparts might behave;
• how to make new materials which will be useful to us; and
• how to extract and use materials from the earth to improve our welfare.

In economic and occupational terms, we can say that the knowledge of chemistry helps us:

• to produce professionals in different disciplines such as pharmacy, engineering, medical and natural science professions; and
• make items, goods and materials for sale such as chemical laboratory equipments and reagents, medicines, rubber, cement, paints, steel, plastics, etc. What other materials do you think can be included in the list?

Therefore, we can summarize that the study of chemistry is important for survival, development and welfare of man as well as sustainable production of crops and animals.

 TOPIC 2: LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY 

A laboratory is a room or building specially designed for conducting various scientific experiments. An appropriate school laboratory has the following features:

• a room with enough space for carrying out scientific experiments;
• a store for keeping laboratory apparatus, chemicals and reagents;
• an office for laboratory technician to sit in and design scientific experiments;
• enough ventilation to let in fresh air and light;
• wide doors and several exits for emergency evacuation in case of an accident; and
• a wide table in front of the laboratory room, fitted with sinks for experiment demonstrations by the teacher or technician.

Rules and safety precautions in a chemistry laboratory

laboratory Rules

State laboratory rules

Chemistry is best studied through doing experiments. Most experiments are conducted in the laboratory. It is important to read and follow laboratory rules to avoid causing accidents. Your teacher will teach and give you more rules. The following are some important laboratory rules:

1. Do not enter the laboratory without permission from your teacher or laboratory technician.
2. Wear safety goggles all the time while in the laboratory. Obey this rule whether you are actually working on an experiment or simply writing in your laboratory notebook.
3. Contact lenses are not allowed. Even when worn under safety goggles, various fumes may accumulate under the lens and cause serious injuries or blindness.
4. Put on closed shoes and trousers when in the laboratory. Sandals and shots are strictly prohibited.
5. Never walk or run unnecessarily in the laboratory.
6. Tie back long hair when using open flames.
7. Eating, drinking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in the laboratory.
8. Don’t perform any experiment not authorized by your teacher or lab technician. If you are curious about trying a procedure not covered in the experimental procedure, consult your teacher or laboratory technician.
9. Never taste anything. Never directly smell the source of any vapour or gas; instead drift a small sample to your nose. Do not inhale this vapour directly but take in only enough to detect an odour if one exists.
10. Always wash your hands after experiments.
11. Never use your hands to transfer chemicals. Use a spatula instead.
12. Notify your teacher or technician immediately in case of an accident
13. Know what chemicals you are using, carefully read the label twice before taking anything from the reagent bottle. Do not interchange labels.
14. Excess reagents are never to be returned to stock bottles. If you take too much, dispose of the excess.
15. Many common reagents, for example, alcohol, acetone and carbon disulphide are highly flammable. Do not use them anywhere near open flames.
16. Pour more concentrated solutions into less concentrated solutions to avoid violent reactions. For example, always add acid to water; not water to acid. If you pour water into acid instead, the heat of reaction will cause the water to explode into steam, sometimes violently, and the acid will splash.
17. If chemicals accidentally splash onto your skin or eyes, flush immediately with plentiful amounts of water and report to your teacher or lab technician.
18. Never point a test tube or vessel that you are heating at yourself or your colleague.
19. Dispose of chemicals properly. Unless you are told otherwise, assume that only water may be poured in the laboratory sinks.
20. When an experiment is completed, always clean up your work area and dispose of the broken glass properly. Return all equipment to its proper storage places.
21. Never take away anything from the laboratory without your teacher’s permission.
22. Beware of hot glass because it looks exactly the same as a cold glass. Never touch it with your hand.
23. Always adjust the Bunsen burner to give a luminous flame when not using it (or just simply turn it off).
24. Use equipment or apparatus only for its designated use.
25. Never eat or drink from laboratory glassware.
26. Make sure all the burners are turned off before leaving the laboratory. Check that the gas tap is off as well.
27. Never heat a liquid in a closed container. The expanding gases produced may blow the container apart, injuring you or others.
28. Use only those chemicals needed in the activity. Keep all lids closed when a chemical is not used.
29. Do not use the same spatula to remove chemicals from two different containers. Each container should have a different spatula.
30. Replace all stoppers, covers and caps as soon as you finish using it. Be careful not to exchange stoppers from two different containers.
31. When heating glassware, use wire gauze or ceramic screen. This will protect glassware from the flame of a Bunsen burner.
32. Never use broken or chipped glassware. If glassware breaks, inform your teacher and dispose of glassware in the litter bin.
33. Keep all windows open for proper ventilation.
34. When carrying out the experiment where you expect harmful gases to be produced, use the fume chamber. The fume chamber helps to disperse hazardous gases and vapours safely.
35. Use a lighter or wooden splint to light burners. Do not use papers. Always strike the match before turning on the gas supply.
36. In case of a gas leakage, turn off the gas tap and open the windows. Leave the room immediately.
37. Do not touch any electrical equipment with wet hands. 36. Turn off any gas or water taps that are not in use.

The Safety Measures for a Chemistry Laboratory

Explain the safety measures for a chemistry laboratory

The chemistry laboratory can be a place of discovery and learning. However, by the very nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of danger if proper common-sense precautions are not taken. Effort has been made to eliminate the use of explosives, highly toxic and carcinogenic substances from the experiments which you will perform. However, there is a certain unavoidable hazard associated with the use of a variety of chemicals and glassware. You are expected to learn and adhere to all safety guidelines. This will ensure a safe laboratory environment for yourself and the people you may be working with or those near you. The following are important laboratory safety measures to obey:

1. Label and lock all storage areas, cupboards, drawers, storage cabinets, refrigerators, etc. Locking will prevent accidental contact with chemicals or interference with equipment.
2. Be familiar with the location, use and limitations of the safety devices. This includes fire extinguishers, fire blankets, fume hood, spill cleanup materials, first aid kit, eyewash stations and fire alarm.
3. Keep all chemicals in properly labelled containers. This will prevent accidental use of the wrong chemical for a particular experiment.
4. Be familiar with the appropriate safety measures to take when exposed to different hazardous materials. Information is available from your teacher or laboratory technician.
5. All chemicals that react with each other must be stored separately.
6. Be aware of the interaction of laboratory furniture and equipment with chemicals used or stored in the laboratory. For example, oxidizers should not be stored directly on wooden shelves.
7. Use fume hoods/cupboards/chambers whenever possible.
8. Never store food in a refrigerator or freezer where hazardous chemicals are stored. Also, do not eat anything you find in the laboratory or in the laboratory freezer or refrigerator.
9. Make sure fire extinguishers are in good condition. Report any broken seals, damage, low gauge pressure or improper mounting to the teacher or laboratory technician. If the seal has been broken, assume that the fire extinguisher has been used and must be recharged. (Note: Do not use fire extinguishers unless you are trained and feel confident to do so).
10. Stored chemicals must be inspected regularly to ensure they have not expired. Note the date when bottles were received and when were first opened. Note expiry dates on chemicals and their special storage conditions.
11. Eliminate safety hazards by maintaining laboratory work areas in a good state of order.
12. The laboratory must have wide emergency exits and wide windows. Wide exits facilitate easy evacuation in case of emergency. Wide windows allow enough air to enter and circulate in the laboratory. (Note: Maintain at least two clear passages to laboratory exits).
13. Always keep tables, seats, fume hoods, floors and desks clear of unnecessary material.
14. All equipment should be inspected before use. In addition, they should be checked regularly to ensure they are safe for use.
15. If experiments must be left unattended, place a note next to experimental apparatus indicating the chemicals involved, your name and telephone number on which you can be reached in case of an emergency.
16. Keep the laboratory floor clean and dry at all times. Clean spills of water or chemicals immediately. Then notify other laboratory workers of potential slipping hazards.
17. The laboratory must be equipped with potable fire extinguishers and other safety devices with clear instructions on how to use them in case of any emergency.
18. Containers for holding or storing chemicals must be inspected for leakages or other damages. They should have tight stoppers or covers.
19. All experimenters and other persons working in the laboratory should wear protective gears to minimize exposure to hazards. These gears may include lab coats, hand gloves, gumboots, safety goggles, aprons, etc.
20. There should be a manual or instruction guides on how to treat spills of different chemical substances.
21. The fume chamber should be labelled. It should be kept in good condition to minimize unexpected gas leakages or emissions.
22. Gas cylinders should be labelled, stored properly, and supported. Moreover, they should be in good working conditions all the time.
23. Each laboratory should be equipped with adequate first aid kits.
24. Equipment for monitoring contamination should be installed to give alerts of any possible dangers.

NOTE: All the above rules and safety measures are applicable to all research, teaching and academic laboratories. However, your laboratory may require some more rules that apply to specific materials and equipment.

First aid and first aid kit

FIRST AID

First aid is the help given to someone who is injured or sick before the victim gets further medical assistance. This help can be given by any person regardless of his/her knowledge in a medical profession.

Whenever an accident occurs, something must be done immediately to help and save life of the victim. You must always be ready to give a hand to a victim whenever an accident occurs close to you. To give aid effectively and successfully, one must have elementary knowledge on how to assist different victims. If you do not know how to help a certain victim, you can ask someone to assist instead. Do not engage yourself in assisting if you actually do not know where to start. You may find yourself worsening the situation of the victim unknowingly. However, this should not be taken as an excuse for failing to help. Always be ready to render some kind of help. First aid helps to:

1. relieve pain and bring hope to the victim.
2. prevent permanent disability
3. prevent the victim’s condition from getting worse
4. reduce the possibility of death.
5. shorten recovery time

Possible Causes of Accidents in a Chemistry Laboratory

Identify possible causes of accidents in a chemistry laboratory

Accidents may occur in a school laboratory if utmost care is not taken into account. Accidents in the laboratory are mainly cuts on parts of the body such as hands, fingers, legs or head. Others are burns from flames, scalds from boiling fluids, bruises and grazes due to accidental falling on a slippery floor.

Some possible causes of accidents in the laboratory include:

• Failure to follow the correct experimental procedures for example, pouring water into an acid instead of pouring an acid into water as the rule is.
• Neglecting some laboratories rules such as ignoring to wear protective gears, tasting the chemicals, eating or drinking while in the laboratory, etc.
• Failure to adhere to proper conduct in the laboratory like running unnecessarily and conducting experiments without your teacher's or technician's permission and guidance.
• Improper use or handling of laboratory equipment and apparatus when conducting experiments, which could lead to breakage and in turn cause cuts, bruises, grazes, etc.
• A slippery laboratory floor which can cause fractures, cuts, bruises, grazes, etc
• Accidental spillage of chemicals on body parts such as hands, face, eyes, etc, could lead to burns and damage.
• Poor ventilation in the laboratory may cause suffocation (due to inadequate oxygen supply) and poisoning (by inhaling poisonous gases produced when experimenting).
• Improper disposal of chemical wastes may result in explosions, burns or even fires.
• The leaking of gases from taps or cylinders may cause fires or even explosions.
• Use of wrong reagents due to incorrect labeling of chemicals or use of reagents or chemicals that have expired may cause burns, poisoning or damage to apparatus or equipment.
• Inadequate prior information or knowledge on procedures and hazards associated with certain practical activities or reactants may result in burns, poisoning or explosions.
• Loose or improperly plugged electrical appliances may cause electric shock, especially when touched with wet hands and during fixing of sockets.

In general, it can be concluded that most laboratory accidents are a result of negligence and carelessness of experimenters. It is also due to failure to follow the laboratory rules and general safety measures.

The Items Found in a First Aid Kit

Name the items found in a first aid kit

A First Aid Kit is a box in which first aid chemicals, tools and instruments are kept. In the laboratory, the box is usually kept in a place where it can be easily reached in case of an accident, preferably on the wall.

Each student must be familiar with the tools and chemicals kept in the kit and learn how to use them to provide first aid to a victim.

First aid kit and its contents

How Each First Aid Kit Item is Used

Demonstrate how each first aid kit item is used

The table below shows types of chemicals found in a First Aid Kit and their functions.

Tool/chemical/item	Function
First aid manual	Contains guidelines on how to use the items in the first aid kit
Sterile gloves	Worn on hands when attending bleeding cuts or wounds to avoid infecting wounds and to prevent direct contact with the victim’s body fluids
Sterile dressing	Stops bleeding
Antiseptic agent	Cleaning and disinfection of wounds, cuts, bruises, grazes or blisters
Soap	Washing hands, wounds and equipment
Antibiotic ointment	Prevents infection on cuts and bruises in or near the eye
Burn ointment	Applied on burns to prevent infection
Petroleum jelly	Soothing broken skin
Plaster or adhesive bandage	Covering small wounds or cuts
Sterile gauze	Covering wounds to protect them from dirt or germs
Eye wash solution	Flushing the eyes or as a general decontaminant
Thermometer	Recording body temperature
Antibiotic towelettes or cotton wool	Cleaning and drying cuts and wounds
Iodine tincture	Dressing fresh cuts and bruises
Pain relieving drugs such as aspirin, paracetamol, panadol, etc	Relieving mild pains
Liniment	Reducing muscle pain
Mild antibiotics	Treating mild bacterial infections on the skin, ear, nose and mouth
Gentian violet solution	Applied on minor wounds and treatment of serious heat wounds
Hydrogen peroxide solution	Cleaning wounds
Methylated spirit (70% alcohol)	Cleaning cuts and bruises
Bandages	Dressing wounds and cuts, and immobilizing injured limbs
Scissors or razor blade	Cutting dressing materials
Dental kit	Treatment of broken teeth, loss of crown or filling
Safety pins (small and big)	Splinter removal and securing triangular bandage slings
Tweezers	Splinter or stinger removal
Resealable oven bag	Container for contaminated articles
Moleskin	Applied to blisters or hot spots
Triangular bandage	Used as a sling, towel or tourniquet
Boiled, clean water	Washing hands and drinking
Nasal spray decongestant	Nasal congestion from colds or allergies
Torch	Source of light
Whistle	Blown to call for help

The Items in a First Aid kit to Provide First Aid to an Accident Victim

Use the items in a first aid kit to provide first aid to an accident victim

First aid procedures

Sometimes accidents may occur in the laboratory due to some reasons or the other. Whenever an accident occurs, one must be ready and prepared to assist. The following are some of the health problems that may require first aid and the procedure to follow when providing help.

Bleeding

Bleeding is the loss of blood from the body and usually occurs from a visible wound. Bleeding may be exter